Historically, a great variety of goods has been used as a
medium of exchange: cows, salt, cowry shells, large stones,
exotic feathers, cocoa beans, tobacco, iron, copper, silver,
gold, and more. Economist Milton Friedman notes that cigarettes
were used as money in post-World War II Europe.
However, not every good is equally suitable as money.
There are certain characteristics that favor the use of a good
for indirect exchange:
The good is widely marketable.
This is the chief prerequisite for a good to become
money. There is no point in trading a good you want to
sell for one less marketable, unless you have a specific
use for the less-marketable good. The rest of these factors
are important in that they contribute to a good
being widely marketable.
The good transports easily.
If someone wants to trade using a commodity, it helps
to be able to get the commodity to the trading site. Early
instances of indirect exchange often employed livestock,
especially cattle. That was money that not only talked
but walked as well. Land is a poor medium of exchange
because you can’t ever bring it anywhere.
The good is relatively scarce.
This criterion is closely tied to the one above. If the
good used as money is plentiful, you’ll tend to need a
lot of it to make your purchases, making it hard to move
around. For instance, if we used topsoil as money, we
would all need a dump truck to go grocery shopping.
The good is relatively imperishable.
You don’t want your money “going bad” a couple of
hours or days after you get it. The longer you can hold
your money, the more opportunity you have to wait for
a good deal to come around. This is why items like milk,
eggs, meat, and so on are not suitable as money. Livestock
can, of course, die, but you can check when
you’re trading to ensure that you’re not being given
money that’s on its last legs. The precious metals and
gems clearly stand out in this regard.
The good is easy to store.
Not only should your money last, you don’t want to
have to go through a lot of rigmarole to get it to last. A
chemical compound that is only stable below -300
degrees Fahrenheit will not come to be used as money.
Carl Menger mentions that cattle were a popular
medium of exchange among people in societies that
were primarily agricultural and had plenty of open land
nearby. The rise of cities made cattle much less useful
as money. Most co-ops have strict rules against keeping
livestock in an apartment, and the practice makes it very
hard to keep the shag carpet clean. The precious metals
and gems are again winners here.
The good is easily divisible.
Not every exchange ratio will result in whole numbers
of each good being exchanged. If your money is easily
divisible, you can make change. Livestock clearly falls
short in this regard, as once you divide it up, it’s not
going to walk anywhere for you, and it becomes much
more perishable. Gems are weak here also, given the
difficulty in dividing them without destroying much of
their value.
Each unit of the good is very similar to every other unit.
You don’t want to keep fussing around checking out the
quality of your money and adjusting the exchange ratio
based on this quality. For one thing, someone else might
judge this quality differently than you do. Diamonds,
while in many ways suitable as money, are problematic
in this regard—it takes an expert to judge the value of
any particular diamond. The divisibility problem with
diamonds is related to this. You can’t get the price of a
whole diamond by adding up the prices of its pieces
once it is cut.
The only goods that stand out in all of the above criteria
are the precious metals, and most societies eventually came to
use silver and/or gold as money. As international trade
increased, gold gradually displaced silver in most places. (The
amount of gold that needs to be shipped for any particular
payment is only a small fraction of the amount of silver
needed for the same payment.) This process finally led to the
international gold standard of the nineteenth century.
There is nothing mystical about the choice of gold as
money. It is merely the commodity that best fit the above criteria.
Another commodity, such as platinum, could easily
prove superior at some point in the future.
The value of a good used as money originates from its
value as a good employed in direct exchange. However, in the
process of becoming money, the good gains additional value as
a medium of exchange. Still, the value of money is determined
in the same way as that of any other good—by the subjective
evaluations of those trading it.
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